Pakistan has a splendid historical past and is replete in cultural sites and monuments that are found all over the country. Its history goes back to the Paleolithic period. Here, flourished the two internationally acclaimed civilizations of Indus Valley and Gandhara (3).

The first Greek expedition to the Indus Valley (now Pakistan) focused on surveying the course of this river. The Greek came into contact with the people of this area for the first time in the reign of the Achaemenian emperor Darius 1 (522-486 B.C) who sent Scylax of Caryanda to explore the entire course of this river. Scylax started his voyage from the city of Kaspatyros (Kaspapyros) and sailed down the river Indus and discovered the place where it emptied itself into the sea. The Greeks, as traversed by Scylax, named this country, as India. Subsequently, this name was applied to the whole of the South Asian Subcontinent (4).
The second contact was more vigorous and generated a more durable effect. It was Alexander’s military campaign in 326 BC, which temporarily brought the entire Indus Valley under Greek control. Though it was a short-lived phenomenon, but it opened the gates for subsequent invaders from Central Asia. Alexander’s march through Pakistan may be traced based on Aryan’s account supplemented by those of others Greek historians (5).

The further contacts between the Greeks and the Indus region are evident from the Bactrian Greeks, a strong source of Hellenism that developed in the heart of Afghanistan in 255 B.C under the leadership of Diodotus as governor of Bactria (and later he declared his independence from Asia Minor, as noted by Justin). After that, Antiochus III advanced into Bactria in 208 B.C to subdue Diodotus, which resulted in a truce and his further expedition toward the territory of the present day subcontinent. These movements strengthened the presence and influence of Greek groups in this part of the world. Following the expedition of Antiochus III into the subcontinent, a formal government was established here slowly and gradually.(6).
With the loss of Bactria, the Bactrian Greeks apparently fell back upon their dominions in Afghanistan and Pakistan then known as India. In their new habitat they were no more Bactrians, hence the term Indo-Greeks appears to be more meaningful. The histories of Greek rule in these areas are characterized by intercine wars mainly between the houses of Euthydemos and Eucratides. Various princes belonging to these rival houses kept on clashing with each other over a long period of time till they were finally swept away by the Scytho-Parthian deluge. History does not mention their names but more than thirty of them are known from the coins issued by them. But due the nature of the evidence, it is difficult to put them in a precise chronological order. We shall mention only a few of the most important among them.

Towards the end of spring, Alexander began his march for India. He left Amyntas in Bactria with a force of 3,500 mounted troops and 10,000 infantries. He crossed the Indian Caucasus, and in ten days reached Alexandria, the town he founded in the territory of Papapamisadae during his first expedition into Bactria, before entering India. He rendered the standing governor incompetent and brought up one of his own named; Tyriaspes as one in charge of Parapamisadae and the rest of the country along the river Cophen. Alexander’s Indian campaign started from Nicaea (Victorious city) probably near the present Jalalabad in eastern Afghanistan.

Raja Ambhi became supportive of Alexander before he travelled toward the Indus region. The charismatic and sensible qualities of Alexander shaped his position as one of the world’s greatest generals. As part of his future planning, he aimed to found Alexandria Nikaia, the site of modern Kapisi, which was his next targeted destination after crossing the Hindu Kush range. He moved his forces forward with his generals Hephaistion and Perdiccas through the route of Pushkalavati, the site of modern Charsadda, who occupied the territory and constructed a bridge over the Kabul River to assist in crossing Alexander, while the rest of his forces entered Bajaur in the spring of 327 B.C. There he launched operations against the Aspasios, the well known Bajaur tribes, who resisted strongly and halted the movement of Alexander and his army near the Kunar River between Dir and Kafiristan. These Bajaur tribes gathered and fought a pitched battle against Alexander’s armies at Arigaion. Alexander could never believe that this type of hard resistance he would receive from these scattered tribes.

Alexander tried many times to defeat these fearless tribes among their rulers but every time he had to face hard resistance which caused to exhaust Alexander’s troops. Alexander changed his strategy and succeeded after some meetings with Aspasios which resulted to cross the river Guraios (modern Panjkora) from the east of Bajaur. This journey became the first source of revelation with the powerful nation of Assakenoi in the state of Swat. He attacked at Massaga, the people of Massaga organized themselves to shield their town. On the fourth day of fight The Massaga people asked for cease-fire after the death of their chief. Alexander accepted this offer as Arrian wrote “he was glad to preserve the lives of the brave men” there he offered them to serve as his soldiers. But the same night he was surrounded and unarmed by the Massagites along with their women and children who put up a gallant fight in which Massagites organized themselves in smaller groups and finally the defenders were overpowered. This was the very first time when Alexander defeated by Massagites brutal deceit (8).

Alexander sent a message from Massaga to defeat Bazira (modern Barikot) and Ora (modern Audigram). The people from Punch and Hazara advised to leave the place as soon as possible and the people of Bazira met one of Alexander’s General Coenus. But when they heard the fall off Ora, they became abandoned and took his general as refuge. Alexander turned and stayed at Ora and Massaga safe places to guard the country. There he took some steps to fortified Bazira, after that he marched along with his troops and entered in Peshawar valley (9).

At Pushkalavati he placed a Macedonian garrison and reduced small towns on the Indus and continued his march. Before crossing the Indus, his troops met a siege by Aornos and this was his last operations (10).

The splendid description of Aornos (where the escapees from Ora had fled) intrigued Alexander to capture it. On his march to Aornos, Alexander started in the direction of the Indus towards the town of Peucelaotis, which he took over by surrender. Several other small places around the river also fell in his hands. When he arrived at a town close to Aornos called Embolima, he detached a portion of his forces to weaken the grip of Indians on their own land. After that he continued towards the Legendary rock of Aornos. He attacked head-on with his forces on the first day which led to their retreat. The coming dawn they started construction of a tall structure made up of wooden stakes which overwhelmed the Indians. Once they lost their sense of morale, it was easy for Alexander to occupy the rock. Many were killed when they tried to flee. And the rock of Aornos was finally conquered by Alexander. To meet the Aornos obstruction is one of the most remarkable of mountain warfare achievements (11). Once he dominated, he handed over Aornos to Sisikottas (Sashi Gupta) with garrison and marched down and crossed the Indus from Und (Ohind, Hund, Unhabhandapura) and entered to the Punjab. The two Armies reunited at Hund (Swabi) which was the 3rd Capital of Gandhara.

As they approached Raja Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila welcomed Alexander with gifts and aid as a surrender. His aid included 500 elephants to the Greeks and support to invade Jhelum ruled by Raja Porus. Alexander stayed in Hund and gave his arm rehearsals. Private people found the inscription of Shadra, translated, and published by Prof. Dr Abdur Rehaman (7).
According to this inscription two lines I want to explain Most of the emperors who was exiled around the world would stay here. Moreover, the King established colonial system fpr intellectuals. Moreover, the prominent personality of (Late) Mr. Rahat Ullah Khan was donated the inscriptions and cultural materials being displayed in Hund Museum. This spot is also known as the sucidal point where Raja Jaipal attempted suicide after being released from Jail of Mehmood of Ghazna. Then, from there their march towards Taxila began.

Taxila is a very important landmark because it has the largest University in 1st century BC managed by vice chancellor Panini. The Greeks are thought to have stayed in Bhir Mound, where we can see the remains. This was the first historic city of Taxila having laid by the Persians and occupied till the 2nd century BC. From Taxila Alexander proceeded towards Jhelum. Before this march he had already sent instructions to Taxiles for the Indians living west of Indus to meet him at whatever time they find convenient (12). Taxiles who was the ruler of the city of Taxila and North-west Rawalpindi along with the other chiefs obeyed the summons from Alexander, bringing him short presents of things considered most valuable in their country and offered to give Alexander the twenty-five Elephants they brought with them.

As per the history the philosophers residing this land would live outside the city on bare lands to adjust themselves to every situation and harshness of life. Alexander once invited these philosophers, but they did not accept. Alexander went himself to them and asked to join him, to which they replied that they do not have anything to offer. Then, Alexander asked them for guidance towards life. They told him to stick at one place and stop roaming around a distressed soul. One of the scholar Kalyan joined Alexander during his journey while the rest did not. After few days when they left, Chandre Gupt attacked the people and then first treaty was signed on this land in 305BC. The treaty was signed between the locals and Chandre Gupt Mouriya.
Upon Alexander’s arrival at Indus, he found that Hephaestion had already begun working there. He had bridged the river for better transport with several small boats and several galleys. It is said that upon entering Indus, Alexander ordered to build a city at the meeting point of Chenab River, however no evidence has been found that it was built. However, there are some ancient cities or signs of cities present away from the junction. Some scholars believe that this city had been built but was destroyed by the river floods.

Alexander conquered the following lands as he travelled down along the Indus:
After historical conquest over Raja Porus and subjugating all other rebellions, Alexander ordered to construct 12 Gigantic Altars on the Bank of Bias River to mark the eastern limit of his empire. According to Diodorus each of the altars was 75 feet in height. Continuous fighting and the hardships that the Macedonians faced during the campaign all the way from Macedonia to present Punjab province of Pakistan made them exhausted and reluctant to extend their campaign further up to Magadha. The fight against Porus also hindered them to continue further campaigns against the Indian strongholds (13). Thus, Alexander finally decided to sail down Jhelum through the southern Punjab. He did not know about the hardships and resistance waiting on his way in the form of Malloi (Oxydrakoi), the most hostile people with 90,000 soldiers, 10000 cavalry and 900 war chariots who were ready to defend their territory against the invaders. The Macedonian soldiers were so frightened to attack the well defended fort of Malloi that they were stirred to action only after Alexander was shot down by the arrow on his chest of the troops while ascending the rampart alone (14).

As Alexander moved towards Sogdia, (presently known as Soga Raja) from Multan, his conquest of present Sindh truly begins. He also built a fortified city between Rahimyar Khan and Sukhur, where he stayed for a few days and repaired his boats. The traces of this city have been found from Patan Minara which is an ancient tower. Speculations state that the last city Alexander built at the confluence of Chenab and the fortified city between Rahimyar Khan and Sukhur, along with a lost River Dock may be found here near Patan Minar. to the Arrin, Ruler of Aror or Arol named Mosekanos came to Soga Raja to welcome Alexander with gifts as a surrender as well.
During the British period in the subcontinent, excavation at this site revealed a tablet with Sanskrit inscriptions. However, this tablet was lost.

After staying a few days at Arol, Alexander took a liking to this city because of its greenery, fountains and pleasant environment and later he handed over the city to Mosekanos and proceeded further on the western bank of the Indus and pass the present Shikarpur. The Greek Army led by Alexander then reached the present Larkana and defeated their ruler, Oxicanos. Mahota is another city said to have been captured by Alexander. All rulers of those cities in Alexander’s way accepted him without any resistance except for Sambhos. According to my analysis, the Sambhos Raja was a very important and powerful Raja of the area. The Raja was very daring and capable as he fought against Alexander and has a great image in Sindh history. Importantly, the historian Arrian explained the story of Raja Sambho but never explained his death and end. Greek historians probably never highlight their weakness, but Raja Sambho has defeated Greeks and that is why his end was kept unexplained as per my understanding. This includes the cities like Rorhi, on the eastern side of Indus River as well.

As Alexander reached and took over Patla (present Hyderabad), he announced safe return of the inhabitants of the city. It was here where Alexander decided to return to Greece. In September 325 BCE, he divided his army into two major groups once again. One of the groups was commanded by Niarcus, another one of his generals and the other by himself. Niarcus along with his group returned to Greece by sea. On the other hand, Alexander and his group proceeded further towards Makran via Lasbela, Turbat until they reached Patni village located on the bank of the sea after an exhausting journey of 60 days (15).
After Oxydacrae, Alexander proceeded in Patalla (current Hyderabad or Bahmanabad) and instructed his companions to deal with the fortified regions and to keep watch on the neighborhood before joining him. On the third day of Alexander’s journey to Patalla, he was informed that the chief of that place has departed along with all his people, leaving Patalla empty and ready to be occupied (16). He brought back the fugitives by means of friendly communication and helped them prosper by digging wells and supporting in other ways through his companions. Because Patalla was relatively nearer to the ocean and was the best place for trading, it made sense to help this land prosper as it was economically beneficial. This also made his approach easier to other places to conquer.
After reaching Patala, the modern Brahmanabad or Hyderabad, the first campaign of the great conqueror came to an end. Some of the scholars identify Patala as modern Bhambhore where the Indus delta might have begun at the time of Alexander’s invasion. It was at Patala where Greek Army started marching homeward. Alexander divided his army into three groups and led one of the groups via Gedrosia along the cost of Makran. The second group proceeded via Seistan and the 3rd one proceeded using the sea route. The reasons why Alexander undertook the risk to proceed via Markran is not known. He might have decided to punish Macedonian troops who hesitated and denied continuing campaign further to Magadha at Beas. Or Alexander may have decided to suppress the legendary adventurous known as Samirami. But most probably he undertook this last expedition via Makran to clear the coastal area free from piracy and to establish regular connection with the Macedonian troops marching home via the Arabia Sea under Niarchus.
According to Arrian, the Macedonian troops led by Alexander after entering Makran Desert finally reached in the capital of Gedrosia in the district of Pura. The Journey had been the worst disaster of Alexander’s entire campaigns as thousands of men, women and children were lost due to shortage of food water, flood, and other natural disasters. While the sailors had survived the ordeal of the journey by sea relatively not entertained, and eventually landed at Harmezeia (Harmuz). It was in late December that the Macedonians re-joined in the Carmanian capital Salmous (Gilshkird) and they had an emotional reunion with the king amid great celebrations.

This Greeks who made a real impact upon the Indus Zone and its culture came from Bactria. The Greek army enetrated for deeper into south Asia across Pakistan and established their rule in the Punjab and adjacent territory, which lasted for about one century. It has aptly been appointed out that in the field of numismatics the Greeks had something better to offer. They introduced for the first time in the area, the practice of using regular die-struck coins, following a regular weight standard, size and shape. The Greeks word “drachma” for a silver coin, prakritized as Drama, gradually came to be pronounce as Dam. Similarly, the use of Greek language on Bactrian coins and a number of Greek inscriptions found on Pakistan and Afghanistan, indicate that it was understood, even if partially. In the realm of astronomy have been preserved several Greeks names: the romaka and Paulisa siddhantas bear obvious traces of Greek influences. The art of divining the future by means of stars entered south Asia possibly from Babylon, in the field of art and architecture.The Greek influence influence can be seen in the Gandhara region particularly in the facial features of the Buddha and in Ionic columns found in the Jandial temple at Taxila. Greek influence in the decorative arts appeared in more forceful way, some of the motifs such as acanthus leaf patterns continue to be used even today.

There are certain advantages and disadvantages of invaders to a territory. The disadvantages are various like the place they invade disturbs in many terms such as economically, ecologically, culturally, politically, and much more. Apart from that if we talk about advantages, it can be seen that new ideas are introduced in terms of cultures, art, political, approaches, educational aspects, architectural forms, armed forces techniques. As an example, elite forces of army were introduced with updated techniques after the fall of these invaders.
The effects of Greek culture can most visibly be seen on art and architecture of present Pakistan. For example, the toiletry trays, meaning the trays people keep toothpaste brushes, scissors or other accessories to groom themselves. More similar or what we have in our bathroom today near the mirror, the shelf with toothbrushes and deodorants etc., all these shows rituals and bacchanalian or drunk party scenes. We may also find the Ionic capitals supporting large columns or pillars of important buildings, this is also a commendable Greek influence.
Alexander the great has reasons of invading this area as he knew that this area is enriched in similar culture and impressive heritage along with many other reasons. The main reason of invaders invading our territory is that we have neve been united and stood firm with each other, which ultimately allowed invaders to take control easily. In the second century, when Indus Greek took hold of this area with their 39 kings and 3 queens, they reunited and never went to interior Sindh because they knew that Alexander faced downfall in his strength there. As emperors of interior Sindh were united and did not allow anyone to invade unity was the main strength.
Before studying the literature, present about Alexander, there were various perceptions about him from emperors and mystics and great scholars. Some researchers concluded that he was ambitious and wanted to conquer while other says that her wants to surpass the mystical exploit of Greek Gods and believe that the campaign might be revenge from the Persians who defeated the Greeks in 480 BC.